The City of the Caesars and Sultans: Constantinople (aka Istanbul)

Hello everyone! I'm currently wrapping up my little vacation to Istanbul, so this seemed like a good time for a new history update. This is my second time here, and I had much more time to explore and really take in the city. I've been thinking quite a bit about the city as it used to be, i.e. Constantinople. Of course, thinking about Constantinople is part and parcel of being a Byzantinist, but it becomes much more real when you're actually standing in the "Queen of Cities" as it stands in the 21st century.

Human settlement in what is now Istanbul dates back thousands of years, as you would expect in such an important location. Situated on the straits of the Bosphorus--the thin channel of water separating mainland Europe from Asia Minor--the site has always had great value for regulating the trade between the Near East and the rest of the Mediterranean world, as well as controlling the only entrance to the Black Sea. In the 7th century BC, Greeks from the city of Megara founded Byzantion, which would be the name of the city for around 1000 years. Then, in 330 AD, Constantine changed everything.

A statue of Constantine in York, England, a one-time capital of the Roman Empire

In the early 4th century, the Roman Empire was a lot different than what you probably imagine. The time of Augustus was long gone, the Mediterranean world had been wracked by nearly a century of civil war and political usurpation, and the so-called "barbarians"--that is, anyone who lived outside the borders of the Empire--were pressing on the Roman frontiers to greater and greater effect. In the past many of the emperors had been politicians and even philosophers; now, only a soldier could be expected to hold onto the throne. In response to these problems--known as the "Crisis of the Third Century"--one of Constantine's predecessors, Diocletian, instituted massive reforms to the Roman system, including dividing the power of the emperor. Instead of a single emperor, Diocletian created a "college" of 4 emperors, who could more effectively govern the sprawling Imperium Romanorum.

This is the famous porphyry statue of the tetrarchs, which you may have seen if you've been to St. Mark's Basilica in Venice. It was looted from Constantinople in 1204 by the Venetians.

Each of these emperors would be responsible for a separate section of the empire, and each would rule from a city of their choosing (based on strategic importance, of course). The city of Rome was no longer the seat of the empire, and it took on a purely symbolic importance. Instead, the "capital" tended to be wherever the emperor based his court.

Not the best map, but you can see a number of these imperial capitals. Notice how there aren't any along the southern Mediterranean: that's because there weren't any invasions coming from that direction, thanks to a little thing called the Sahara Desert.

This system of tetrarchs worked by having the 2 senior emperors (the "Augusti") name their subordinates (the "Caesares"). When the senior emperor died, his junior would be elevated and then pick a new junior emperor, and so on and so forth. For a while this worked very well, and the problems of the Third Century became a thing of the past. Then, Constantius died in England while serving as the Augustus of the West. His Caesar should have taken his position, but Constantius' troops instead declared his son, Constantine, to be the new emperor. This was for all intents and purposes an illegal usurpation of power, and it set into motion a series of periodic civil wars that would last for nearly 20 years. When the dust settled, Constantine had eliminated all of the other members of the system of the tetrarchy, and the Roman Empire once again was under the rule of a single man. Shortly thereafter he set out to found a new capital--remember, Rome hadn't been strategically significant for decades (at least). He settled on the city of Byzantion, completely rebuilding the city in the process, and renaming it first Nova Roma, and eventually Constantinople (the city of Constantine). He also moved various artifacts from around the Roman world to his new capital in order to increase the prestige and beauty of the city (as did his successors), some of which can still be seen here today.

The Obelisk of Theodosius, which is actually an obelisk constructed by Thutmose III (15th century BC) perched atop a marble pedestal made during the reign of Theodosius (4th century AD). This was placed in the Hippodrome, the chariot racing circuit in Constantinople.

The Serpent Column, originally placed in front of the Delphic Oracle to commemorate the Greek victory over the Persian Empire at Plataea in 479 BC. Until fairly recently (the 17th century is recent when you're talking about ancient history) it's 3 heads were still attached, but now they're located in the city's archaeological museum. This is near the Obelisk, in the Hippodrome

At the time it wasn't clear that Constantinople would be anything more than a short-lived tetrarchic capital (the system had worked so well, why wouldn't it return after Constantine's death?), but as it turned out this would be the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire for over 1000 years, only to then become the capital of the Ottomans for more than 400 years more. As you may or may not know, the city continued to be called Constantinople (or Konstantiniyye, in Turkish) throughout the Ottoman period, and was only formally named Istanbul after the formation of the Turkish Republic in the 1920s. It was, after all, in the best interests of the Ottomans to identify their capital with the defeat and capture of the former Roman Empire.

Since the name change, Constantinople is generally only used in reference to the song, much to the chagrin of Byzantinists around the world (as well as the Greeks)

The city's location meant that it would always be very strategically important, and the Roman Emperors created an incredible system of defense to ensure that it would remain in their hands indefinitely. The walls constructed by Constantine were rendered obsolete in less than 100 years, but the new walls of the 5th century would stand unbreached for 1000 years, until the advent of gunpowder in European warfare. Even then, it took one of the largest cannons ever fired (with a caliber of over 600mm) to breach these formidable defenses. It's hard to overstate how incredible these walls were; they were so well constructed that when there was an earthquake in 1999, the original sections of the wall were undamaged while the recently restored parts collapsed. Not bad for 1500 year old technology.

The shape of the peninsula made Constantinople a tough nut to crack. There were formidable sea walls on the sea of Marmara, a chain guarding the natural harbor of the Golden Horn (plus more sea walls), and a nigh-impenetrable system of defense by land

The land defenses as they would have looked in the Middle Ages. First a moat, then a shorter wall with towers, then a MASSIVE wall with even more towers. All the ramparts would have been filled with soldiers shooting arrows and throwing other projectiles at you as well, of course.

What's left of the walls today, with the modern restorations of course.

Such defenses were necessary, as the city would be subjected to siege after siege, about once every 50 years starting in the early 7th century. While much of the city's Roman elements have been lost as a result of the 4th crusade in 1204 as well as the Ottoman period from the 15th-20th centuries, there are still some impressive remnants to be seen. At the top of the list is the Hagia Sophia, the Church of Holy Wisdom, constructed by Emperor Justinian in the 530s. For the next 1000 year, it would be the Christian church in the world. After the Ottoman conquest it became a mosque, until it was turned into a museum in the 1930s.

The minarets are obviously an Ottoman addition

It's hard to get a sense of the scale, but this place is HUGE

One of the more famous aspects of the building was the dome, which was said to appear to be suspended from heaven when the light hit it properly. You can get a sense of this at the very top of this picture.

Most of the Byzantine decorations are either destroyed or covered up (as Islam prohibits figural representations in their places of worship), but some can still be seen. This is one of the seraphim, the highest order of angels who protect the throne of God. They have 3 pairs of wings, 1 for flying and the remainder to shield their body.

Various mosaics remain as well, this being one of the most famous

While in the Middle Ages Constantinople was covered in churches, today there isn't much left to see outside of the Hagia Sophia; most of them were converted into mosques and remain as such today. There are exceptions of course (Google "Chora Museum" to see the best mosaics that remain in the city, or "St. Mary of the Mongols" to see the only church that existed in the 15th century, was never converted into a mosque, and remains a church today), but a great deal of the Byzantine city--especially the parts that were still in use in the 15th century--is gone forever. Modern archaeology has uncovered some real gems though, such as the mosaic floor of the palace used in the 6th century:

Speaking of palaces, the Ottoman palaces are some of the best preserved elements of the city's second imperial phase (unsurprising, since this phase ended less than 100 years ago). The old palace of the Ottomans is known as Topkapi, and parts of it date back to immediately after the conquest in 1453. It covers a large area of the oldest parts of the city, where the old Byzantine imperial structures once stood. Today it serves as a museum, and houses a number of interesting pieces of Ottoman art and military technology.

It's a pretty huge complex...

...and the view from the innermost parts is phenomenal

Other parts of Early Modern Istanbul that survive can be found around the city, such as inside some of the mosques and especially in the Grand Bazaar and Spice Markets, which you really have to see to understand. By the 19th century though, these aspects of the Ottoman Empire, and especially Topkapi Palace, were increasingly seen as old-fashioned and out of touch with the rest of European society. As such, Sultan Abdülmecid decided to build Dolmabahçe Palace, across the Golden Horn from the oldest parts of the city. Unlike Topkapi this palace was thoroughly European, and built to rival anything in the West.

The largest chandelier in the palace, gifted by Queen Victoria

Bearskin rugs, a gift of Tsar Nicholas II

The opulence is INSANE

I think that should do it for this update. It's hard to sum up a city like Istanbul in a blog post; it's really a special place that needs to be seen to be understood. Tomorrow I'm back in Cassino, and in two weeks I'l be off to Rome! Thanks for reading.

Fun with Funghi: Risotto ai Porcini e Tartufo

FINALLY I can update again. Sorry for the long delay folks, my internet has been absolutely atrocious for a while now. I've been plugging away at my work at the monastery (hard to believe I've been here over a month now), though you never make as much progress as you want to. The internet seems to be working pretty well today, so it's time for a new food update!

The weather here has started to turn, and it's feeling more and more like Fall every day. Taking this into consideration, it seems like a good opportunity to cover some good Italian comfort food: risotto.

Carnaroli rice, shortly before fulfilling its destiny as a delicious risotto

The history of risotto is somewhat contested, but the traditional story as that it was introduced in Milan by the Spanish in the early 16th century. This first style, risotto alla milanese, remains a classic, but it requires saffron, an ingredient that is one of the most expensive substances in the world by weight. Unlike almost any other style of risotto, it is served alongside the main course, traditionally osso bucco. That's all too rich for my blood (plus I don't know how to track any saffron down here), so I'm going with another classic, risotto ai porcini e tartufo. Traditionally this would be a primo, a first course before the main course consisting of some kind of meat or fish and a vegetable side dish. A whole pot of this stuff is more than enough for an entire meal anyway, so this is a bit non-traditional I guess.

Much prettier than what I made, but this is what you're going for.

Now, some of you reading this are probably thinking that you've heard of risotto, and it's waaaaay too complicated for you to try making. Put this out of your head! There's no reason to be intimidated by this dish; the only vaguely difficult thing is that you need to be attentive while you're cooking. This is not a set-it-and-forget-it dish: you'll need to be watching and stirring for around 20 continuous minutes. Otherwise though, it's easy-peasy. Another misconception that I'll dispel here at the outset: while you may have seen (or even eaten) risotto at a restaurant that holds its shape, that's really an overcooked dish. You don't want a soupy final product, but you want it to "ooze" a bit. The key to making a good risotto is using the right kind of rice (more on that in a moment), and keeping the solid to liquid ratio correct so that the starch in the rice gets converted into a delicious, creamy sauce (almost a gravy) that connects all of those individual grains of rice. If you wind up with something that's about the consistency of fried rice, you've gone too far. It'll still taste fine, but it shouldn't be the goal.

I'm sure this tastes good, but booooooo.

With all that being said, let's get started. For hardware, you'll need a couple pots, one for the risotto itself (if you have a cast iron dutch oven that would be ideal, but don't use it if it's very large and you're not making a large batch. Anything with a little heft to it will be fine) and another to keep the cooking liquid simmering. You also want a ladle as well as a wooden spoon, and of course a knife. Here's my setup:

You can also see the cooking fat melting down here.

As for the actual ingredients, you need rice (either Arborio, Carnaroli, of Vialone Nano. In the US you'll probably only see Arborio), olive oil, butter, a few cloves of garlic, a small onion, some white wine, vegetable broth and/or mushroom broth (I'll get to that), dried porcini mushrooms, parmesan cheese (please don't use the shelf stable junk in a can), and either a black truffle or some kind of prepared black truffle sauce. You should be able to find the porcini in most grocery stores (try either Wegman's or Graul's for those of you in Baltimore, and Kroger should carry them in Ohio). The truffle/truffle sauce may be harder to track down, and you could omit it if you want to. It adds a really great, earthy flavor though. One last note: I don't have any proper measuring equipment here, so I've mostly been eyeballing everything and going by the weight indicated on the packages. This might make it a little tricky to match my exact recipe, but think of it this way: I didn't measure *anything* and it turned out great, so don't sweat the details. To begin, you want to soak your dried mushrooms in hot/warm water for at least 15 minutes or so. I used 50g of mushrooms (a little less than 2 oz), and you want enough water to cover the mushrooms plus a little bit more. Once they've soaked, remove the mushrooms from the liquid and chop them up, but SAVE THAT LIQUID! You basically have mushroom stock now, and it's super tasty. Strain the liquid, preferably through some cheese cloth, as there will likely be a little bit of grit. I unfortunately couldn't do this so I tried just carefully ladling out the liquid without disturbing the sediment, but I still had a little bit make it into my food. Don't be like me, strain the liquid! Also finely dice your onion and garlic. You should have something along these lines:

Meanwhile, put your heavier pot over low heat and with about a tablespoon of olive oil and about 2-3 tablespoons of butter. This seems like a lot, but like I said, this is comfort food! Also, put your strained mushroom liquid into your other pot, and get it simmering. You will need this either simmering or right on the verge for the entirety of the cooking process. Once your butter is melted, add your onion and garlic (along with a little salt) and sweat them. You aren't looking for color here, you just want to soften the onion up.

Try to avoid any errant bits of mushroom. Again, don't be like me!

Once the onion starts looking a bit golden, add in about a 1/4 cup of white wine (dry white wine, of course), and cook until the onion has basically melted. At this point, it's time to add your rice. I used about 300g, which was about half of a small box. Again, this probably isn't super helpful, but this was enough rice for 2 main dish servings. I'm guessing you'd want around 2-3 cups (dry) for 4 people, and I would also double (piu o meno, as they say here) the other ingredients. Add the rice directly to the pot, right from whatever package you bought it in: DO NOT WASH IT. If you rinse the rice, you'll lose all that starchy goodness that makes risotto, well, risotto. Once you've added it, mix it all together thoroughly. The goal here is to get every single grain of rice coated in the oil, butter, garlic, and onion mixture. You'll be able to tell when you're done with this step, as all of the grains will be nice and glossy, and very lightly toasted. What you don't want, though, it to get any color on the rice. That can be very delicious, but again, it's not risotto! If you've stirred and stirred and the grains still don't look coated, you need a little more oil.

Next, add in those chopped porcini mushrooms and stir it up until well mixed:

Looks like wild rice, right?

After all mixed, start adding your simmering mushroom broth. It is SUPER important that your broth be hot, or the rest of the recipe isn't going to turn out right. Also, you only want to add enough to cover the rice mixture. It should look sort of...swampy, if that makes sense, but you don't want the rice drowning in liquid. Too much liquid will turn this into ordinary rice pilaf, instead of creamy risotto. The small amount of liquid turns all that starch into a creamy sauce, so don't drown it!

Something like this is what you're going for.

From here on out, you'll need to be paying close attention to the pot. After adding the broth, stir the simmering mixture near-constantly until the broth has been absorbed into the rice mixture, at which point you add more broth, and so on and so forth. Each time you just want to add a small amount of liquid, just enough to cover the rice. If you run out of mushroom broth, use (simmering!) vegetable broth, or even water in a pinch. Again, there are no firm measurements here: use however much liquid is necessary. You will probably be done this process after about 20 minutes. You want the rice to be "al dente" (which literally means "to the tooth", which really doesn't tell you much), cooked through but with just a slight bit of snap to it. What you don't want is mush, so don't overcook! The only way to tell when this is done is to taste it periodically. If you find yourself in the unfortunate situation of there still being too much liquid in the pot and your rice is basically done, you can crank up the heat and stir like crazy to compensate. This should be a last resort though, it's easy to overcook the rice! When the rice is done, take the pot off the heat and stir in a little more butter (about a tablespoon or so, maybe a touch more) and a generous helping of grated cheese, at least a cup. Then, add your truffle/truffle sauce. I used about a tablespoon of a prepared truffle sauce; if you're using fresh, you would shave it and then add to the mixture. This is what it should look like, more or less:

Those little black flecks are the truffles. Be careful, they have a very powerful flavor, so go easy on them!

This smelled so good that I couldn't wait to eat it long enough to take a picture of the completed plate! Seriously, you need to try this. You could very easily substitute other ingredients for the mushrooms and truffles, but you need to try making it this way at least once. As for what to drink, you could go a couple different directions. You could try a nice acidic white like a Pinot Grigio, to cut through some of the fat in this dish and really let the earthiness of the mushroom and truffle shine through. Alternatively, you could go with a light-ish red, like a Valpolicella, to add a little fruit and freshness to the dish. Personally though, especially if you are including the truffles, I think you need to go with a big red from Piemonte (the region best known for truffles), something made from the Nebbiolo grape. If you're a real oenophile (and have deep pockets) you could drink a nice Barolo, or if you aren't familiar at all with the wines of the region you could try a more simple Langhe Nebbiolo. For me, I think the best option lies in between, with Barbaresco. It's not cheap, but this is not an everyday meal either. The rich, earthiness of these wines work really well with the above risotto, and it's what you'd drink if you were eating this dish in Piemonte. I'll be covering the wines of that region in my next wine update, so keep your eyes peeled.

On Wednesday I'll be heading to Istanbul for a week (to get around that pesky "no more than 90 days in the EU" rule), so my next history update will deal with that area rather than Italy. *Hopefully* I'll be able to update twice in the coming week, but we'll see how it goes. Thanks for reading!